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تعداد مقالات یافته شده: 197
ردیف عنوان نوع
31 Quantitative assessment of microbial quality and safety risk: A preliminary case study of strengthening raspberry supply system in Chile
ارزیابی کمی از کیفیت میکروبی و خطر ایمنی: یک مطالعه موردی اولیه از تقویت سیستم تأمین تمشک در شیلی-2020
National governments are moving to integrate risk analysis frameworks into food safety management systems at the country level. However, this process is less advanced in developing countries. In this context, the Chilean Livestock and Agriculture Service (SAG), Food Quality and Safety Agency (ACHIPIA) and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) collaborated on a project to control generic Escherichia coli and Hepatitis A virus (HAV) contamination in both fresh and frozen raspberry products destined for export. The objectives of this study were to 1) identify along the raspberry supply chain the most influential factors of E. coli and HAV contamination in the final products; and 2) evaluate the efficacies of possible interventions to control these influential factors. To achieve these objectives, a unified quantitative model of microbial contamination in raspberries was developed to describe the impact of factors in a continuum from the farm to the destination of importation on E. coli/HAV contamination in fresh and frozen raspberry products. Multiple surveys were conducted to obtain countryspecific data on current common practices of producing and processing raspberries in Chile for inputs into the simulation model. The model estimated mean bacterial loads of−1.64 and−5.46 logCFU/g for E. coli and mean viral loads of −6.45 and −6.51 logPDU/g for HAV in fresh and frozen raspberries, respectively. Sensitivity and scenario analyses indicated that reduction of E. coli contamination in the end products can be effectively achieved by improving the quality of water used for pesticide application, as well as by controlling the transport and storage time and temperature along raspberries supply chain. By contrast, to control HAV contamination in the end products, efforts should be focused on improving the hygiene practices of berry handlers on the farm and at the packing plant. This project provides straightforward recommendations for Chilean food safety authorities to effectively prioritize their financial and human resources to proactively prevent microbial contamination in raspberries. Moreover, this project provide a framework that can be extended to other countries to promote capability building for applying risk-based food safety management systems for public health protection.
Keywords: Risk analysis | Quantitative simulation | Raspberry | Escherichia coli | Hepatitis A | Intervention
مقاله انگلیسی
32 Post-implementation of a Safe Harbor law in the U.S.: Review of state administrative data
پس از اجرای قانون بندر ایمن در ایالات متحده: بررسی داده های اداری ایالتی-2020
Background: Safe harbor laws have been implemented to change the way systems of care respond to juveniles exploited in commercial sex in the U.S., yet there is little research on the way these laws have impacted the identification and rehabilitation of juveniles. Objective: Using administrative data, this study investigates the impact of a safe harbor law enacted in one state in the U.S. Participants and Setting: This study examines secondary data on juveniles with prostitution-related charges from 2007 to 2017 (n=17); juveniles who were screened for human trafficking by juvenile court personnel (n=56,937); (3) screenings for human trafficking with juveniles in the juvenile justice system (n=12,223); and (4) juveniles who were reported to the child welfare agency as possible victims of human trafficking (n=697). The number of criminal cases of human trafficking involving victims under the age of 18 years old from 2007 to 2017 were analyzed by calendar year (n=61). Methods: Aggregate, administrative data was accessed and analyzed. Results: Findings show that juvenile justice and juvenile court personnel are screening for trafficking at an increasing rate and making referrals to the child welfare system as mandated by law. However, a relatively low percentage of these cases are substantiated, confirmed and/or result in criminal charges to the trafficker. Despite safe harbor mandates that prohibit the charging of juveniles with prostitution offenses, there is evidence that this is still occurring in small numbers. Conclusions: Based on these findings, researchers have identified next steps to facilitate future investigations of safe harbor laws.
Keywords: Sex trafficking of minors | Human trafficking | Legislative reform | Child | Juvenile
مقاله انگلیسی
33 Analyzing the Benin Land Law: An alternative viewpoint of progress
تحلیل قانون سرزمین بنین: دیدگاه جایگزین پیشرفت-2020
Ekpodessi and Nakamura recently published in Land Use Policy a paper on the 2013 Benin Land Law, the stated objective of which was to evaluate its effectiveness. The 2013 Land Law is mainly limited to reforming land administration bodies and does not alter the underpinnings of existing land law. On the contrary, it reaffirms the focus on private ownership and aims at simplifying and reducing the costs for accessing a land title. A new agency responsible for land administration has been created and just began to deliver titles, but needed policy tools were not yet in place at time of writing. It is thus too early to evaluate the new law’s effectiveness. In any event, this paper questions the assumptions and the content of the Benin Land Law and its ability to positively address land issues. The paper argues that effectiveness cannot be assessed without a conceptual frame of reference and associated methodology for critique. On the basis on the author’s in depth field research on land policy processes in Benin over many years, another viewpoint is offered on key findings in Ekpodessi and Nakamura’s paper.
Keywords: Land law | Policy analysis | Implementation | Evaluation | Legal pluralism | Research methodology
مقاله انگلیسی
34 Governing through care: A qualitative assessment of team play between police and nurses for people with mental illness
مراقبت از طریق حاکمیت : ارزیابی کیفی و بازی تیمی بین پلیس و پرستاران برای مبتلایان به بیماری روانی-2020
The nexus between law enforcement and public health represents a new and emerging policy field. Yet, most scholarly work has been devoted to police attitudes and interventions involving people affected by mental illness. This paper draws attention to a law enforcement – public health partnership in Amsterdam, the capital city of the Netherlands. We present a qualitative study based on interviews and some observations. Three major themes emerged from our fieldwork that involved policy makers, community police officers, and district nurses: how these officers and nurses perceive the problem of disorderly and confused people, how they work together in practice, and how they relate to a wider network of many other players. We argue that community police officers and district nurses have developed a kind of informal ‘team play’ consisting of three steps: receiving and analysing a signal, undertaking action, and providing aftercare. These steps offer a preventative approach aimed at avoiding and forestalling crisis situations. Difficulties arise in terms of tracing so-called ‘care avoiders’ (people who do not present a ‘readiness for treatment’), hampered information exchange, and the governance of partners beyond our respondents own organisations. In particular, we argue that todays society is not only governed through crime, but also through care. There is no such thing as a robust ‘punitive complex’ in which policing and criminal justice logics prevail. Rather, we witness a multi-agency network of police, public health, mental health, youth care housing associations and other nodal actors, each with their own bureaucratic logics and working methods tending to clash with, or even undermine, informal team play on the streets.
Keywords: Mental illness | Law enforcement | Public health | Street-level professionals
مقاله انگلیسی
35 Contextual information and cognitive bias in the forensic investigation of fatal fires: Do these incidents present an increased risk of flawed decision-making?
اطلاعات متنی و سوگیری شناختی در تحقیقات پزشکی قانونی در مورد آتش سوزی های مهلک: آیا این حوادث خطر تصمیم گیری نادرست را افزایش می دهد؟-2020
In sudden or unexpected deaths, there is a need to identify whether or not the death resulted from a criminal act. Adding evidentiary problems associated with fire and arson to this further complicates the investigation. A multi-agency approach with an open exchange of information is recommended, though the use of unrestrictive contextual information is problematic. Extraneous contextual information may introduce bias into the investigative process, risking flawed decisionmaking, and fatal fires may be particularly vulnerable to this. The authors examine the effect of cognitive bias on fire investigation and argue that, in fatal fire investigations, the sharing of contextual information should involve the use of strict information management strategies to ensure that forensic experts only receive task-relevant contextual information.
Keywords: Fatal fires | Cognitive bias | Decision-making | Scientific protocols | Linear sequential unmasking | Case-manager approach
مقاله انگلیسی
36 Why fairness cannot be automated: Bridging the gap between EU non-discrimination law and AI
چرا انصاف را نمی توان خودکار کرد: پر کردن شکاف بین قانون عدم تبعیض اتحادیه اروپا و هوش مصنوعی-2020
In recent years a substantial literature has emerged concerning bias, discrimination, and fairness in artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning. Connecting this work to existing legal non-discrimination frameworks is essential to create tools and methods that are practically useful across divergent legal regimes. While much work has been undertaken from an American legal perspective, comparatively little has mapped the effects and requirements of EU law. This Article addresses this critical gap between legal, technical, and organisational notions of algorithmic fairness. Through analysis of EU non-discrimination law and jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) and national courts, we identify a critical incompatibility between European notions of discrimination and existing work on algorithmic and automated fairness. A clear gap exists between statistical measures of fairness as embedded in myriad fairness toolkits and governance mechanisms and the context-sensitive, often intuitive and ambiguous discrimination metrics and evidential requirements used by the ECJ; we refer to this approach as “contextual equality.”
This Article makes three contributions. First, we review the evidential requirements to bring a claim under EU non-discrimination law. Due to the disparate nature of algorithmic and human discrimination, the EU’s current requirements are too contextual, reliant on intuition, and open to judicial interpretation to be automated. Many of the concepts fundamental to bringing a claim, such as the composition of the disadvantaged and advantaged group, the severity and type of harm suffered, and requirements for the relevance and admissibility of evidence, require normative or political choices to be made by the judiciary on a caseby-case basis. We show that automating fairness or non-discrimination in Europe may be impossible because the law, by design, does not provide a static or homogenous framework suited to testing for discrimination in AI systems.
Second, we show how the legal protection offered by non-discrimination law is challenged when AI, not humans, discriminate. Humans discriminate due to negative attitudes (e.g. stereotypes, prejudice) and unintentional biases (e.g. organisational practices or internalised stereotypes) which can act as a signal to victims that discrimination has occurred.
Equivalent signalling mechanisms and agency do not exist in algorithmic systems. Compared to traditional forms of discrimination, automated discrimination is more abstract and unintuitive, subtle, intangible, and difficult to detect. The increasing use of algorithms disrupts traditional legal remedies and procedures for detection, investigation, prevention, and correction of discrimination which have predominantly relied upon intuition. Consistent assessment procedures that define a common standard for statistical evidence to detect and assess prima facie automated discrimination are urgently needed to support judges, regulators, system controllers and developers, and claimants.
Finally, we examine how existing work on fairness in machine learning lines up with procedures for assessing cases under EU non-discrimination law. A ‘gold standard’ for assessment of prima facie discrimination has been advanced by the European Court of Justice but not yet translated into standard assessment procedures for automated discrimination. We propose ‘conditional demographic disparity’ (CDD) as a standard baseline statistical measurement that aligns with the Court’s ‘gold standard’. Establishing a standard set of statistical evidence for automated discrimination cases can help ensure consistent procedures for assessment, but not judicial interpretation, of cases involving AI and automated systems. Through this proposal for procedural regularity in the identification and assessment of automated discrimination, we clarify how to build considerations of fairness into automated systems as far as possible w
مقاله انگلیسی
37 Limited liability and investment: Evidence from changes in marital property laws in the US South, 1840–1850
مسئولیت محدود و سرمایه گذاری: شواهدی از تغییر در قوانین مالکیت زناشویی در جنوب ایالات متحده ، 1840-1840-2020
We study the impact of marital property legislation passed in the US South in the 1840s on households’ investment in risky, entrepreneurial projects. These laws protected the as- sets of newly married women from creditors in a world of virtually unlimited liability. We compare couples married after the passage of a marital property law with couples from the same state who were married before. Consistent with a simple model of household borrowing that trades offagency costs against risk sharing, the effect on investment was heterogeneous. It increased if most household property came from the husband and de- creased if most came from the wife.
Keywords: Bankruptcy | Household finance | Economic history
مقاله انگلیسی
38 The impacts of market size and data-driven marketing on the sales mode selection in an Internet platform based supply chain
تأثیر اندازه بازار و بازاریابی مبتنی بر داده بر انتخاب حالت فروش در زنجیره تأمین مبتنی بر پلت فرم اینترنت-2020
This study investigates a platform’s preferences between agency selling and reselling considering the impact of data-driven marketing (DDM). Four models are built: No-DDM+agency selling, No- DDM+reselling, DDM+agency selling, DDM+reselling. Sales volumes, profits and profit growth rates in different sales modes are compared. Results show that with an increase in DDM efficiency, the platform is more willing to adopt the reselling mode. In addition, without DDM, the sales mode with higher sales volume is not more profitable within a certain market size. DDM can help avoid this phenomenon to a certain extent.
Keywords: Internet platform based supply chain | Agency selling | Reselling | Data-driven marketing (DDM) | Supply chain management
مقاله انگلیسی
39 Risk factors for self-harm in prison: a systematic review and meta-analysis
عوامل خطر برای صدمه به خود در زندان: یک بررسی سیستماتیک و فراتحلیل-2020
Background Self-harm is a leading cause of morbidity in prisoners. Although a wide range of risk factors for self-harm in prisoners has been identified, the strength and consistency of effect sizes is uncertain. We aimed to synthesise evidence and assess the risk factors associated with self-harm inside prison. Methods In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched four electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and PsycINFO) for observational studies on risk factors for self-harm in prisoners published from database inception to Oct 31, 2019, supplemented through correspondence with authors of studies. We included primary studies involving adults sampled from general prison populations who self-harmed in prison and a comparison group without self-harm in prison. We excluded studies with qualitative or ecological designs, those that reported on lifetime measures of self-harm or on selected samples of prisoners, and those with a comparison group that was not appropriate or not based on general prison populations. Data were extracted from the articles and requested from study authors. Our primary outcome was the risk of self-harm for risk factors in prisoners. We pooled effect sizes as odds ratios (OR) using random effects models for each risk factor examined in at least three distinct samples. We assessed study quality on the basis of the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and examined between-study heterogeneity. The study protocol was registered with PROSPERO, CRD42018087915. Findings We identified 35 independent studies from 20 countries comprising a total of 663 735 prisoners, of whom 24 978 (3·8%) had self-harmed in prison. Across the 40 risk factors examined, the strongest associations with self-harm in prison were found for suicide-related antecedents, including current or recent suicidal ideation (OR 13·8, 95% CI 8·6–22·1; I²=49%), lifetime history of suicidal ideation (8·9, 6·1–13·0; I²=56%), and previous self-harm (6·6, 5·3–8·3; I²=55%). Any current psychiatric diagnosis was also strongly associated with self-harm (8·1, 7·0–9·4; I²=0%), particularly major depression (9·3, 2·9–29·5; I²=91%) and borderline personality disorder (9·2, 3·7–22·5; I²=81%). Prison-specific environmental risk factors for self-harm included solitary confinement (5·6, 2·7–11·6; I²=98%), disciplinary infractions (3·5, 1·2–9·7; I²=99%), and experiencing sexual or physical victimisation while in prison (3·2, 2·1–4·8; I²=44%). Sociodemographic (OR range 1·5–2·5) and criminological (1·8–2·3) factors were only modestly associated with selfharm in prison. We did not find clear evidence of publication bias. Interpretation The wide range of risk factors across clinical and custody-related domains underscores the need for a comprehensive, prison-wide approach towards preventing self-harm in prison. This approach should incorporate both population and targeted strategies, with multiagency collaboration between the services for mental health, social care, and criminal justice having a key role.
مقاله انگلیسی
40 Challenges experienced by probation officers working with children in conflict with the law in the Johannesburg Metro Region (South Africa)
چالش های تجربه شده توسط افسران مشروط کار با کودکان در تعارض با قانون در منطقه مترو ژوهانسبورگ (آفریقای جنوبی) -2020
South African legislation has mandated new roles and responsibilities for probation officers working with children in conflict with the law. These children who engage in criminal behaviour have been used or coerced by adults and sometimes by peers. In addition, sometimes the children commit crimes out of their own agency based on rewards gained. The crimes they commit range from petty crime such as begging, vagrancy, substance use to serious offences such as murder, rape and robbery. This was a qualitative study on the experiences of probation officers working with these children. The findings reveal that the environments in which the probation officers work under are often traumatic, lack resources and are few thus impacting efficient delivery of services. In addition, the implementation of the Child Justice Act (CJA) is hampered by abuse of the system by parents/ caregivers and the child offenders. In as much as South Africa has made strides in protecting children in conflict with the law, these challenges should be addressed urgently in order for the successful implementation of the legislation, for children to be better protected and ultimately for safer communities.
Keywords: Probation officers | Children in conflict with the law | Social work | Johannesburg Metro Region, South Africa
مقاله انگلیسی
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